Stages of Psychosocial Development - Erik Erikson and Church Education

Introduction

Erik Erikson was a psychologist (1902-1994) who identified eight stages through which persons should successfully pass for healthy development. Each stage includes a crisis that, when resolved, provides a foundation for the next stage. While Erikson is not considered a Christian writer, many areas of his work contribute to Christian perspectives on human development and have been adapted for this blog.

Understanding Erikson’s stages can help educators meet the needs of learners in the psychological, social, and spiritual areas of life. The stages include themes such as trust, shame, doubt, guilt, inferiority, identity, and despair. This presentation briefly describes each stage, gives suggestions for church-related responses, and identifies resources for further study. Following is a description of each stage.

Erikson's Stages

Trust vs. Mistrust (Infancy): Infants learn to trust or mistrust both their surroundings and caregivers based on whether or not their needs are consistently met.

Erikson identifies the importance of the role of a nurturing parent figure at this stage. One implication is for church nurseries to serve as expressions of warm, safe, and caring maternal environments.

Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (Early Childhood): Children develop autonomy as they start asserting their independence. Feelings of shame and doubt emerge when they are held back or discouraged.

At this stage, teachers and leaders in children’s ministry should focus on learning activities that provide opportunities for successful guided play and affirm children for their efforts and accomplishments.

Initiative vs. Guilt (Preschool): Children begin taking responsibility for their own actions and develop a sense of initiative, but if they feel that what they are doing is consistently wrong or meets constant disapproval, they feel guilty.

Here, opportunities may be provided for creative play and self-expression. This can be through imagining activities, music (children’s songs), art, blocks, or other objects.

Industry vs. Inferiority (Elementary School): Children develop a sense of competence as they master new skills and tasks, but they may feel inferior if they are unable to do so.

This stage opens opportunities for developing skills and competencies. Children are ready for increased social activities through clubs, groups, and classes as well as participation in sports, music groups, and projects.

Identity vs. Role Confusion (Adolescence): Adolescents develop a sense of identity by exploring different roles and possibilities but may experience confusion if they are unable to find a stable sense of self.

Identity exploration is a key theme for this age group. Learning can be through exploration of personal interests (e.g., sports, music, academics), positive role models, youth groups, and sensitivity to emerging gifts, abilities, and career directions.

Intimacy vs. Isolation (Young Adulthood): Young adults seek close relationships with others and develop a capacity for committed and loving connections. They may feel lonely and isolated if they are unable to establish meaningful ties.

Individuals at this stage benefit from networking with peers, participation in small groups, and involvement in service projects. For some, guidance may be helpful in building healthy relationships and setting boundaries.

Generativity vs. Stagnation (Middle Adulthood): Healthy middle-aged adults hope to contribute to society and future generations through work, family, church, and community involvement. They may feel stagnant and unfulfilled if they do not.

This period of adulthood may be thought of as the backbone of church service. Emphasis is on spiritual service, identifying and using one’s abilities and spiritual gifts, and leadership development.

Integrity vs. Despair (Late Adulthood): Older adults reflect on their lives and feel a sense of integrity if they believe they have lived meaningful and worthwhile lives. They may develop a sense of despair if they feel that they have not.

For those in this stage of their journeys, life review activities can assist them in identifying accomplishments and leaving a positive legacy (e.g., story writing, journaling, mentoring). Many also benefit from church and community involvement as volunteers.

Application and Summary

Understanding Erikson’s stages can help Christian educators identify age-appropriate curriculum content. Related theological topics include trust, being created in God’s image, vocation, grace, forgiveness, discipleship, community, belonging, stewardship, hope, and eternal life.

This presentation has provided a summary of Erik Erikson’s stages of development. It has also linked some of the stages with educational and theological implications with the hope that teachers will reflect on teaching strategies with sensitivity and respect for the developmental stages of their learners.

Selected Resources

• Erikson, Erik. Childhood and Society. https://amzn.to/42Nvwpp
• Erikson, Erik. Identity: Youth and Crisis. https://amzn.to/3lOtaGl
• Erikson, Erik. Vital Involvement in Old Age. https://amzn.to/3Zsz4L0
• Fowler, James W. Stages of Faith. https://amzn.to/42P22aI

Supplementary online resources include ChatGPT, Google Search, Google Bard, and Wikipedia

YouTube version of this blog: https://youtu.be/NmgpVOM2-wc

Church and School Education (CASE) Resources is a participant in the Amazon Services LLC Associates Program, affiliate advertising designed to provide a means for sites to earn fees by linking to Amazon.com.

Advice to Teachers and Small Group Leaders

As a senior teacher and leader, there have been times when I have been asked to provide advice to those who lead teaching and learning groups. Following are selected suggestions for leaders in church education settings. This guidance is given with the hope of helping leaders develop healthy, relational, and group-oriented climates. The main points of this blog are inspired by the writings of Paulo Freire (1921-1997), especially his journal article, “To the Coordinator of a ‘Cultural Circle.’”

Be boldly Christian
As Jesus is faithful and active in the lives of his people, so we as teachers or group leaders are to be faithful and active in the lives of the participants in our group. This means showing love, encouragement, and affirmation. Being boldly Christian means, to me, not hesitating to share a passage from Scripture, being up-front in speaking a word of testimony, offering to pray together, and doing acts of kindness.
 

Focus on transformation
Our goal is to work with God for the transformation of lives. Education is more than the transmission of information: it is for life change. Paul refers to this sort of thing when says, “Be transformed by the renewing of your mind” (Romans 12:2).

Serve others
We want to aim at relating to learners from the perspective of a humble servant-leader. Knowledge “puffs up” and can create attitudes that are contrary to the sacrificial nature of Gospel ministry. We must treat each person with grace, warmth, and dignity; show respect for each person by recognizing them personally, remember things about them and refer to each person by name; compliment and encourage. We are not leading the group for our own gratification but for their development. Believers have a “continuing debt to love one another” (Romans 13:8). 

Build community
We are trying to develop a community-centered group rather than a teacher-centered group. Other terms for describing the group could be fellowship-centered, relationship-centered, person-centered, or activity-centered, anything but teacher-centered or leader-centered. This is based on the words of Jesus, “Whoever would be great among you must be your servant” (Matthew 20:26).
We want to aim at relating to learners from the perspective of a humble servant-leader. Knowledge “puffs up” and can create attitudes that are contrary to the sacrificial nature of Gospel ministry. We must treat each person with grace, warmth, and dignity; show respect for each person by recognizing them personally, remember things about them and refer to each person by name; compliment and encourage. We are not leading the group for our own gratification but for their development. Believers have a “continuing debt to love one another” (Romans 13:8).
 
Cultivate participation
As much as possible, we should ensure that everyone participates. This is done through open communication, honest and authentic relationships, and a climate of warmth and acceptance. When asking questions, ask them of the entire group. Have the goal of developing balanced participation but feel free, as well, to direct questions to specific individuals who may need personal attention. Where necessary, help those who are overly talkative to learn to be good listeners.
 
Be a life-long learner
Even though we are leading the class or group, and even though we may have a mature understanding of the topics being studied and discussed, we ought not to be slaves to our own understanding and interpretation of the topic being discussed. Let us not force a group to conform to our conclusions, preconceptions, or planned outcomes. Allow breathing space for the teaching ministry of the Holy Spirit, not only in the lives of participants but in our lives as well.
 
Be a person of integrity
We should model in our lives what we expect to see in the lives of those in our classes or groups. For example, if we expect group members to be punctual, we should begin and end each meeting on time. If we want to communicate Kingdom values, we will work at being the embodiment of Scripture, such as the following passages, during our class or group meetings as well as outside of class or the group.

• “Love one another as I have loved you” (John 13:34).

• “To act justly and to love mercy and to walk humbly with your God” (Micah 6:8).

• “Whatever is true, whatever is noble, whatever is right, whatever is pure, whatever is lovely, whatever is admirable—if anything is excellent or praiseworthy—think about such things…” (Philippians 4:8-9).

• “But the fruit of the Spirit is love, joy, peace, patience, kindness, goodness, faithfulness, gentleness and self-control” (Galatians 5:22-23).

 
Create a positive learning climate
Class or group meetings should be filled with hope, discovery, and encouragement. Ensure that participants leave each meeting having been enriched. No matter what the topic under consideration, little is accomplished by a dominating leader, an overwhelming amount of information, confusing or poorly organized materials, or overly difficult content. Help the group reflect on a topic so that they are not only informed but also inspired, encouraged, and strengthened. Bring closure to each meeting in ways that leave members with positive perspectives on the topics that were discussed, on themselves, and on the world to which they are being sent as God’s messengers. As a result of class time, participants should be strengthened and encouraged in their faith (I Thessalonians 3:2). This is education that transforms.

Summary
In one translation, the Bible says, “But the goal of our instruction is love from a pure heart and a good conscience and a sincere faith” (1 Timothy 1:5 NASB). This is a good summary of the intentions of Christian teaching and small group ministry. Our time together is to be with love, from a pure heart, good conscience, and sincere faith. Teachers and small group leaders have the privilege of doing this: by being boldly Christian, focusing on transformation, building community, cultivating participation, serving others, being life-long learners, having integrity, and creating a positive learning climate.
 
Resources
Freire, Paulo, “To the coordinator of a ‘cultural circle.’“Convergence; Toronto, Vol. 4, Issue 1 (Jan. 1, 1971: 61).
Freire, Paulo. Pedagogy of the Oppressed. https://amzn.to/3ZQSqtV

Supplementary online resources include ChatGPT, Google, and Wikipedia
YouTube version of this blog: https://youtu.be/KUP3sXlpNdA

Church and School Education (CASE) Resources is a participant in the Amazon Services LLC Associates Program, affiliate advertising designed to provide a means for sites to earn fees by linking to Amazon.com.
 

The Church is Not a School

This presentation identifies selected biblical foundations of church education in order to identify differences between church education and school education.  The contrasts are made as generalizations. They are not criticisms of schools and may not be true in every situation. Rather, these contrasts provide a perspective on the uniqueness of content and methods to help church educators better understand their ministry and mission. Contrasts are made in the areas of content, focus, structure, climate, methodology, credentials, relationship to life, and evaluation.

We begin with Bible passages that are related to the education of God's people. These are followed by definitions of the church, of education (especially as it relates to schooling), and then of church education. 

Several Bible passages are foundational to the curriculum of church education. Among these include the following.

Deuteronomy 6:6-9 6. “These commandments that I give you today are to be on your hearts. Impress them on your children. Talk about them when you sit at home and when you walk along the road, when you lie down and when you get up. Tie them as symbols on your hands and bind them on your foreheads. Write them on the doorframes of your houses and on your gates.”

Matthew 28:19-20 19. “Therefore, go and make disciples of all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit, and teaching them to obey everything I have commanded you. And surely I am with you always, to the very end of the age."

Ephesians 4:11-13 11. “So Christ himself gave the apostles, the prophets, the evangelists, the pastors and teachers, to equip his people for works of service, so that the body of Christ may be built up. until we all reach unity in the faith and in the knowledge of the Son of God and become mature, attaining to the whole measure of the fullness of Christ.”

Having identified key Bible passages, we can now define the terms "church," "education," "education," and "church education."

I understand the church to be the fellowship of those who profess faith in Jesus Christ, along with their children. Church includes preaching and teaching the Word of God, practicing the spiritual disciplines found in Scripture, seeking to share the Gospel with others in order to advance the Kingdom, and celebrating the sacraments of Baptism and the Lord’s Supper. 

Education may be defined as the deliberate effort of individuals to search for, acquire, and transmit knowledge, equip themselves for responsibilities in society, and participate in processes of self-discovery and self-expression.

Church education is the teaching ministry of the local congregation which, by the power of the Holy Spirit, enables individuals to know God through the redemptive work of Jesus Christ and to grow in His likeness.

It guides the growth of believers and their children according to Scripture and the unique gifts and abilities that God has given. 

It equips them to serve God in the church and in every area of life according to His Word.

Depending on the context and time period, church education has also been referred to by titles such as discipleship, spiritual formation, Sunday School, catechism, and children’s ministry, youth ministry, or adult ministry.

Following are selected contrasts between church education and school education.

   Area                                Church Education                 School Education

1. Content                        Bible/theology-related            Culture

2. Focus                           Family and Community          Individual learners

3. Structure                      Community                             Age/grade separated

4. Climate                        Cooperation                            Competition

5. Methodology                Participation                            Telling & assigning

6. Credentials                  Spiritual nurture                       Tests & degrees

7. Relationship to life       Life application                        Preparation for life

8. Evaluation                    Spiritual fruit                           Cognitive learning

Summary

This presentation has defined and made contrasts between church education and school education. It has also provided several Bible passages that are foundational to the teaching ministry of the church.

The emphasis has been on the unique nature of teaching and learning in the church. Church education can benefit from many of the processes associated with school education. But, church educators are encouraged to note that there are many spiritual and structural qualities associated with church education that distinguish it from schooling.

This blog is also available as a YouTube video by clicking here. 

Selected Resources

Groome, T. Christian Religious Education https://amzn.to/3ZGxO8r

Richards, L. A Theology of Christian Education  https://amzn.to/3iRyiI9

Srinivasan, L. Perspectives on Nonformal Adult Learning (out of print)

Ward, T. Putting Non-Formal Education to Work  http://www.wardarchives.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/12/Putting-Nonformal-Education-to-Work-Interview-1987.pdf

Ward, T. and Herzog, W. Effective Learning in Non-Formal Education   https://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNAAB028.pdf

Supplementary online resources include ChatGPT, Google, and Wikipedia

 

Relational Theories and Practices for Teaching and Learning

This blog is for helping group members grow in their knowledge of one another and ability to function as an effective group. Included are two theories and a variety of representative discussion activities.

The theories are the Johri Window and the Tuckman Model. The discussion activities follow the general progression of the above theories, beginning with questions and activities for group members who are new to one another and moving the group toward mature relationships and performance.

The “Window” is an approach used to help group members better understand themselves and each other. This theory suggests that there are four areas of our lives that influence our relationships with others.

1. The Arena/Open Area: attitudes and behaviors of which we are aware that are also known to others.
2. The Blind Spot Area: things about us that are known to others but not seen in us by ourselves.
3. The Façade/Hidden Area: characteristics of ourselves that are known to us but not to other group members.
4. The Unknown Area: aspects of who we are that are not known (or understood) by ourselves or others.
Application: group trust and performance improve as group members learn about themselves and others.

Tuckman’s Theory
Tuckman’s model describes the process of group relational and functional development. The theory states that it is normal for healthy groups to go through five stages. These are:

1. Forming – getting acquainted, identifying group purpose and norms
2. Storming – recognizing and adjusting to conflicting perspectives
3. Norming – working together cohesively
4. Performing – high level of functioning
5. Adjourning – closure and celebration of success

Application: Being aware of the five stages can help group leaders and participants function with improved interaction, satisfaction, and productivity.

Discussion Activities for Group Development
The discussion activities that follow are based on the stages of development in the Johari Window and Tuckman’s Theory. They begin with questions and activities for group members who are new to one another, progress toward mature relationships and performance, and end with processes for group closure.

Forming and Open Area – Sentence Completions
Ask group members to compete a few of these during your first meetings.
1. I am from...
2. I work at...
3. My family is made up of...
4. I spend weekends...
5. In my free time, I like to…
6. I feel most cared for when...
7. The important people in my life are...

Forming Activity – Sharing Names and Interests
Arrange participants in small groups (3-5 persons) and have each person say their name and write it on a piece of paper (or newsprint, poster board, or whiteboard) and tell something about themselves (e.g., family, hobbies, special interests, etc.). After each has shared name and interests, go around the circle and have each person say the name and interests of the other persons. This may be followed by a few minutes of open discussion.

Storming, Norming, and Hidden Activity
1. List some of things that you hope this group might do or try to do. Be as specific as possible.
2. Name three things that you hope to gain as a result of being involved in this group.
3. Say what you think the group should have a right to expect from its members.
4. Tell what (skills, abilities, leadership, jobs) you are willing to contribute to the group.

Storming, Norming, and Hidden Activity
Discuss and give an example of which of the following word-sets (or combination of word-sets) best describes you at school or when you last were a student:
• closed/open,
• listener/talker,
• hearer/doer,
• creative/traditional,
• activities/knowledge,
• giver/taker.

Performing and Hidden Area Activities
1. Share a high point and/or a low point in your life during this past week and tell why.
2. If you were to die tonight: What would people remember about you? What would you want people to forget about you?
3. Who made the biggest positive difference in your life?
4. What event, activity, or idea made the greatest impact on your development?

Adjourning, Blind, or Hidden Area Questions
1. Is there anything that needs to be resolved, discussed, dealt with, or expressed before our time together is over?
2. What feelings do you want to express about the group winding up its activities or about the ending of this group?
3. How have you grown as a person while in this group?

Adjourning, Blind, and Hidden Activity
Allow time for individuals to talk one on one (groups of 2s or 3s) about their shared relationship. Suggest that they respond to phrases like:
1. It was nice when you said...
2. I was surprised to hear you talk about...
3. Something I really like about you is...
4. One time I noticed you...
5. I would enjoy talking with you more about...

Summary
We have explored the dynamics involved in group growth and development. The Johri Window and the Tuckman Model were used to illustrate the importance of self-disclosure and group relational maturity. Questions and activities were provided as vehicles for prompting healthy understanding, acceptance, adjustment, and performance.

The challenge that remains is for you to use these questions and activities with a group.

This information is also available as a YouTube video.

Following are recommended resources for building on the information in this presentation as well as references to sources that were used.

Resources

-- Blanchard. The One Minute Manager Builds High Performing Teams.

- - Coleman. Serendipity Bible: for Personal and Group Study.

- - Rydberg. Building Communit inYouth Groups.

References

- -Johari Window: Developed by psychologists Joseph Luft (1916–2014) and Harrington Ingham (1916–1995) in 1955, the term “Johari” is a combination of their first names. Material in this presentation is taken from the web site communicationtheory.org: https://www.communicationtheory.org/the-johari-window-model/

- -Tuckman’s Theory: Created by Bruce Tuckman in 1965. Material in this presentation is based on the following online article. https://ecampusontario.pressbooks.pub/hrstrategicprojectmanagementtheory/chapter/4-6-in-depth-look-tuckmans-model-five-stages-of-team-development/

Biblical Principles for Small Groups

Christians need each other. We were created for community and fellowship with God and one another through Jesus Christ.

This blog shares selected quotes from the classic book, Life Together, by Dietrich Bonhoeffer (1906-1945). I think of these quotes as operating principles for small groups.

Dietrich Bonhoeffer wrote the book, Life Together (1938), to encourage biblical community living among theological students. He was a German Lutheran pastor, who was executed in 1945 because of his anti-Nazi resistance.

Here are some of the quotes that have been helpful to me in thinking about doing life together in small group settings.

Christians Need Each Other: The physical presence of other Christians is a source of incomparable joy and strength to the believer (p.19).

Christ is Central: Christianity means community through Jesus Christ and in Jesus Christ… We belong to one another only through and in Jesus Christ… a Christian needs others because of Jesus Christ… a Christian comes to others only through Jesus Christ… in Jesus Christ we have been chosen from eternity, accepted in time, and united for eternity (p. 21).

Mutual Respect: God does not will that I should fashion the other person according to the image that seems good to me, that is, in my own image; rather in his very freedom from me, God made this person in His image… Strong and weak, wise and foolish, gifted or ungifted… The diverse individuals in the community, are no longer incentives for talking and judging and condemning… They are, rather, cause for rejoicing in one another and serving one another (p. 93).

Listening: The first service that one owes to others in the fellowship consists in listening to them. Just as love to God begins with listening to His Word, so the beginning of love for one another is learning to listen to them… listening can be a greater service than speaking… We should listen with the ears of God that we may speak the Word of God (pp. 97, 99).

Helpfulness: This means, initially, simple assistance in trifling, external matters. There is a multitude of these things wherever people live together. Nobody is too good for the meanest (most menial) service… (p. 99).

Bearing Each Other’s Burdens: “Believers bear one another’s burdens” (Gal. 6:2)… The Christian… must bear the burden of a brother or sister. They must suffer and endure each other. It is only when he or she is a burden that another person is really a brother or sister and not merely an object to be manipulated (p. 100).

Speaking the Word of God: What we are concerned with here is the free communication of the Word from person to person, not by the ordained ministry which is bound to a particular office, time, and place. We are thinking of that unique situation in which one person bears witness in human words to another (p. 101).

Spiritual Authority: Jesus made authority in the fellowship dependent upon service to one another. Genuine spiritual authority is to be found only where the ministry of hearing, helping, bearing, and proclaiming is carried out (p. 108).

This has been an overview of principles for Christian small groups. These selected concepts include: Christians needing each other; Christ being central; mutual respect; listening; helpfulness; bearing each other's burdens; speaking God’s word; and spiritual authority.

This blog has provided some of the quotes that have been helpful to me in thinking about doing life together in small group settings. The book, Life Together, may be purchased by clicking here or from the Virtual Resource Center. It may also be viewed as a YouTube video.

Church and School Education (CASE) Resources is a participant in the Amazon Services LLC Associates Program, an affiliate advertising program designed to provide a means for sites to earn advertising fees by advertising and linking to Amazon.com.

Starting a Small Group

This blog is about starting a small group. The topics include defining what is meant by a “small group,” identifying characteristics of effective groups, describing the steps for starting a small group, providing an agenda for group meetings, and giving an example of a group agreement.

A small group is an intentional gathering of three to twelve people who come together on a regular basis for the common purpose of biblical community.

Effective groups meet on a regular basis, for a common purpose, facilitated by a committed leader who provides an environment for community and fellowship, spiritual formation, outreach and service. (Donahue, Leading Life-Changing Small Groups)

To begin the process: invite 2 or 3 others to help start the group. Ask one of these to be your support person or co-leader. Together, think of an affinity that would bring the group together, a thread that the individuals would have in common: e.g., age, needs, marital status, location, ministry, spiritual journey.

The next step is agree on meeting agenda topics. These could include a one-sentence description of the kind of group that you are forming, an agenda for most meetings, an approach to Bible discussion, and a group agreement for the first meeting. Now you are ready to set a date for the first meeting and personally invite possible participants.

When planning your first meeting, realize that there are three phases to most small group meetings, especially those that focus on Bible study. These are gathering, Bible Study, and caring and prayer.

(1) Gathering occurs during the first 10-15 minutes. It is a time of fellowship and welcome. This helps participants begin to reconnect.

(2) Bible study takes place in the next 20-30 minutes. Discussion questions are used for exploring content, meaning, and application.

(3) And, caring and prayer are emphasized in the last 15-20 minutes for sharing needs, celebrations, prayer requests, and actually praying.

Different kinds of questions are asked during each phase of the meeting. Following are examples of each kind.

• Gathering Questions: What topic(s) in our lives can help us connect with the Bible passage?
• Bible Study Observation Questions: What does the passage say? What are the facts?
• Bible Study Interpretation Questions: What did this passage mean to those who first received it? How are we to understand it today?
• Bible Study Application Questions: How should we (I) respond?

At the first small group meeting, it is good to develop as group agreement. Here items that are usually discussed. It is good to summarize these in writing and distribute them to group members after the meeting. Guide the group in reaching consensus on each of the following statements.

• The purpose (or purposes) of this group is (or are) ________________ (Purposes could include a combination of things such as Bible study, prayer, fellowship, spiritual conversations, service projects, accountability.)
• We will meet ____ times monthly, on ______ (day) from ____ to ____ (time) and start and close on time.
• We will meet at _____ (place) or rotate locations.
• We will agree to one or more of the following: participation: to share responsibility for the group, confidentiality: to keep personal confidences,
• accessibility: to give one another the right to contact each other in time of need,
• other areas.

This has been an overview of the process of starting a small group. We have defined small groups, described characteristics of effective groups, and given suggestions for getting started. Two resources that I especially appreciate on this topic are the following. These may be purchased by clicking on the related links or from Virtual Resource Center.

Donahue, Leading Life-Changing Small Groups.
Osborne, Sticky Church.

To view this blog as a YouTube video, click here.

Church and School Education (CASE) Resources is a participant in the Amazon Services LLC Associates Program, an affiliate advertising program designed to provide a means for sites to earn advertising fees by advertising and linking to Amazon.com.