Adult Learning: Malcolm Knowles, Andragogy vs Pedagogy, Principles and Methods

When it comes to learning, not everyone dances to the same tune. And, it does not take a great deal of observation to see that children and adults dance differently from one another. The premise that there are ways in which adults learn differently from children was most famously championed by Malcolm Knowles (1913-1997).

Malcolm Knowles, Ph.D., spent over 30 years as a professor, consultant, trainer, and researcher in the field of adult education. His principles for learning continue to serve as a foundation of adult education theory and practice. Most notable is the distinction that he made between pedagogy and andragogy.

Pedagogy is the theory and practice of teaching children. It is based on the belief that children depend heavily on teachers to provide them with knowledge, skills, and learning processes.

Andragogy, on the other hand, is rooted in the premise that adults are more self-directed learners with a wealth of prior experience and the ability to make their own decisions about what, why, and how they want to learn.

Key Principles of Andragogy
The following principles are especially significant to adult learning. These are self-concept, experience, readiness to learn, orientation toward learning, and internal motivation.

Self-concept
Adults are responsible for their lives and decisions. This means that in learning situations, adults are more self-directed than children who, technically, are referred to as “dependents.”

Experience
As adults, learners have accumulated a wealth of life experiences. These serve as a valuable resource for connecting with new learnings. Educators can build upon these experiences by linking new learning processes with the richness of past learnings.

Readiness to learn
Adults are more interested in learning when a topic is connected with the self-identified needs, goals, problems, or concerns in their lives. Readiness to explore a topic is directly related to their real-life circumstances.

Orientation toward learning
Many adults are more easily engaged in a learning situation if the material being studied is presented as a problem to be solved rather than as information to be absorbed. Learning activities that are respectful of the experiences, interests, and needs of participants will draw them to one another and the topic being studied.

Internal motivation
Inner factors such as individual goals, personal growth and development, and practical needs will affect motivation to study or discuss a topic. While external motivators such as certificates or rewards are of some value, they are not as important as issues that are of personal relevance.

Teaching Methods for Adult Learning
Based on the above principles, we can identify examples of methods that are especially appropriate for adult learning. These are grouped into three categories: (1) discussion-based approaches, (2) individual reflection-related approaches, and (3) experiential learning activities. They can stand alone for a specific group meeting or be used in conjunction with one another or with information-giving methods such as lectures, speeches, readings, and videos.

Discussion-based approaches
Guided discussion can draw upon the life experiences of learners. Adults connect new concepts to their existing knowledge. These discussions often begin by asking questions such as, What has been your experience with…? Or, What do you know about…? Also, after presenting information, adults can be asked to talk about experiences that they have had that relate to the topic under consideration.

During group reflection, participants may consider the following questions:
What are the key ideas or learnings that I gained from today’s meeting?
How did the material that we discussed make me feel? What emotions did I experience?
What challenged me the most?
What questions are still lingering in my mind?
In what ways did our time together change or expand my perspective?

Problem posing is the presentation of real-world problems that allow learners to collaborate and suggest solutions. Begin a presentation with a problem-focused, rather than an information-oriented, approach. Then encourage participants to add their own problems that relate to the topic under consideration. After providing information, encourage participants to respond to the presentation as well as to one another’s issues. Problem posing supports the need of adult learners to use and apply knowledge to their life situations.

Individual reflection-related approaches
Journaling involves writing a reflective journal or log. It can be used to answer questions like the following: What is one takeaway from our meeting today? What information connects with my previous experience? How can I apply material from today's meeting to my personal or professional life?
Journaling adds precision to thinking and allows an individual to review the progression of their thoughts over time.

Debriefing and self-assessment questions are especially appropriate for individual reflection after a group or personal experience. Of course, they can also be applied to group discussion or journaling activities. These questions ask: What was the main thing that I learned? What new insights were gained? What questions has this meeting brought to my mind? What are the areas in which I may need additional information or support? What might I need to think, be, or do differently?

Self-directed learning
The teacher should be viewed as a facilitator or coach rather than a director, a “guide on the side” rather than a “sage on the stage.” In many areas, adults are self-driven and independent. To support these self-directed inclinations, facilitators can provide supplemental resources for use outside of group meetings. These often include handouts with additional information, including links to websites, podcasts, and YouTube videos. And, when learners are ready, facilitators should assist learners in identifying their own learning goals and plans.

Experiential learning activities
Service projects
Learners participate in an organized service activity that meets community needs and directly or indirectly develops new understandings, attitudes, and skills.

Field activities
Learners participate in real-life activities (other than service projects). This includes internships, apprenticeships, shadowing, field trips, team-building activities, and challenge courses (e.g., climbing and ropes courses). These encourage participants to be stretched and interdependent.

Simulations
Learners take part in simulations that mirror real-life situations. Examples include case studies, role-playing, or computer-based virtual simulations. These allow for learning in a safe and controlled environment.

Conclusion
The blog has identified the difference between pedagogy (teaching children) and andragogy (teaching adults) and has described Malcolm Knowles' principles of andragogy. These state that adults learn differently from children due to their self-concept, accumulated experience, readiness to learn, orientation toward learning, and internal motivation. The material then provided examples of teaching methods suited for adult learners that are categorized into group discussion, individual reflection, and experiential activities. In summary, pedagogy and andragogy are contrasted and suggestions are given for understanding and facilitating adult learning that is respectful of adult development, interests, and needs. Following are suggested resources for additional reading and research.

The Modern Practice of Adult Education: Andragogy Versus Pedagogy. Knowles, Malcolm S. https://amzn.to/3MsMe76
The Adult Learner. Knowles, Malcolm S. and Holton, E. https://amzn.to/462SCZC
A Christian Educator’s Handbook on Adult Education. Gangel, K. and Wilhoit, J. https://amzn.to/3u1ZIR4
How to Teach Adults. Draves, William A. https://amzn.to/3QtU9lP
Learning Together in the Christian Fellowship. Little, Sara. https://amzn.to/49tjvZF
Ispring Solutions: https://www.ispringsolutions.com/blog/adult-learning-theories#best-adult-learning-methods-to-boost-engagement

Supplementary online resources that may have been consulted include ChatGPT, Claude, Google Search, Google Bard, Bing, and Wikipedia.
Church And School Education (CASE) Resources is a participant in the Amazon Services LLC Associates
Program, of affiliate advertising designed to provide a means for sites to earn fees by linking to Amazon.com

This presentation is also available as a YouTube video at https://youtu.be/AOxW2dWd4aI

Easy English Starter List of Bible Words and Their Meanings

 What words are basic to your understanding of the Bible and how do you define them?

This is my little list of Bible words from an easy English perspective. The teacher in me always wants to begin with simple definitions before becoming more complex. We go from known to unknown.

The definitions in this blog, obviously, are partial and incomplete. This is intentional and is why I am calling it a “starter list.” Resource materials will be suggested for more traditional, comprehensive, advanced, and theologically accurate definitions at the end of this material.

Marlene (my wife and best friend) and I have led many Bible study classes and small groups. We do this, realizing that there are many words that we assume participants know and understand but we often do not take time to define these terms. Also, there was a time when we were responsible for an English literacy program. We learned that new English speakers often lack a basic knowledge of everyday words and are especially clueless about Bible-related terms. Following is my starter list of Bible words. I may add new words later and welcome your comments and suggestions. The definitions are my own but probably, at some time in my life, have been read in commentaries, Bible dictionaries, or other reference works. Here they are.

A
Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob: Three important people from the Old Testament who are like the founding fathers of the Jewish people.
Adam and Eve: The very first humans created by God.
Angles: Messengers of God.

B
Baptize: When you get baptized, it is like celebrating that you have been cleaned and are starting fresh in your faith because of Jesus Christ. Baptism can be done by putting you in water, sprinkling water on you, or pouring it on you.
Believe (in Jesus): It means that you have faith and trust in Jesus for your salvation from sin and life everlasting.
Bible: A book made up of 66 documents, also called "books." It is all about God and how people should live with God and each other.
Born again (saved, converted): Becoming a new person through faith in Jesus Christ.

C
Christ: The word means "anointed one.".
Christian: Someone who follows Jesus.
Church: A group of people who meet together for worship, follow the teachings of the Bible, and have faith in Jesus.
Covenant: An agreement or promise that God makes with people.

D
Disciple: A person who is learning from someone else, especially from Jesus.
David: The most well-known king of Israel. He wrote many of the Psalms (a book of the Bible).

E
Eternal life: Living forever. It is a special gift from God, for both now and in the future, for those who have faith in Jesus.
Emmanuel: Another name for Jesus, meaning "God with us."

F
Faith (saving faith): Trusting in Jesus alone to save you.
Forgive: To wipe clean.
God: God is all-powerful and knows everything. Christians learn about God through the Bible, and they believe in God as the Creator and the one who saves. God is the ruler of everything in heaven and on earth.

G
Gospel: The good news about Jesus Christ.
Grace: A special gift from God that you did not earn or deserve.

H
Heaven (paradise): The perfect place where God, angels, and people who are saved live.
Hell: A really bad place where people who rebel against God are punished forever.
Holy: To be set apart, pure, spiritually whole, or complete.
Holy Spirit: The Holy Spirit is God. The Spirit is the third person of the Trinity, which includes the Father, Son (Jesus), and the Holy Spirit.

I
Israel: The name given to Jacob, the father of the 12 tribes, the name of God’s chosen people. Other similar names are Jewish and Hebrew.

J
Jerusalem: A very holy city.
Jesus: The one who saves people from their sins and gives eternal life.

K
Kingdom (of God): The rule of Jesus over everything.

L

Lamb: A symbol for Jesus because He sacrificed Himself for us, like a baby sheep being sacrificed as an offering.

M
Messiah: The Savior. A special leader sent by God.
Mercy: Being kind and forgiving.
Miracle: Something amazing that happens that we cannot explain with our regular rules. It shows the incredible power of God.
Moses: An important person in the first part of the Bible. He led the Israelites out of Egypt.

N
Nazareth: The town where Jesus grew up.
New Testament: The second part of the Bible with stories and letters about Jesus and the early church.

O
Obedience: Doing what God wants and following the teachings of Jesus.

Old Testament: The first part of the Bible with stories from creation until about 400 years before the coming of Christ.

P
Passover: A special Jewish holiday that celebrates when the Israelites left Egypt.
Pharisee: A leader in the Jewish religion.
Prayer: Talking to God.

Q
Quail: A kind of bird that God sent to give food to the Israelites after they left Egypt.

R
Redeemer: Someone who saves, and it is also a name for Jesus.
Repent (Repentance): To change direction and turn away from doing bad things.
Resurrection: When Jesus came back to life after He died. Christians celebrate it on Easter Sunday.
Righteousness (Righteous): Being right with God.

S
Satan (the devil): An angel who turned bad and tries to make people do wrong things.
Salvation: Being saved from the punishment for your sins.
Sin: When you miss the mark by doing something wrong or not doing what you should.
Son: Another name for Jesus. He is also called the Son of God and the Son of man.

T
Temple: A special place where people went to worship God in the Old Testament.
Trinity: One God in three persons: the Father, the Son (Jesus), and the Holy Spirit.
Truth: That which is real and right. Jesus is also called the Truth.

U
Unconditional love: God loves us completely and perfectly.

V
Vineyard: A place where grapes are grown. Jesus talked about vineyards in His stories.

W
Wisdom: Having knowledge and using it in the right ways.
Worship: Showing love and praise to God.

X
Xerxes: A king in a story in the Old Testament.

Y
Yoke: A wooden bar that goes on animals like oxen when they work together to pull heavy things.

Z
Zion: Another word for the city of Jerusalem. A special place for God's people

As mentioned in the introduction, this is a starter list. It is intentionally brief and basic and intended as a beginning frame of reference. I hope that it will generate creative expressions of English speech for educators who are blessed with the privilege of connecting biblical words to the thought processes of those for whom these words are new. The following are selected resource materials that are related to Bible words and their meanings.

Resources
Baker’s Evangelical Dictionary of Biblical Theology:
Free online:https://www.biblestudytools.com/dictionaries/bakers-evangelical-dictionary/
Purchase from Amazon: https://amzn.to/46MlvKG

Bridgeway Bible Dictionary:
Free online: http://www.bridgeway.org.au/books/BibleDictionary.pdf
Purchase from Amazon: https://amzn.to/3Fefef2

Easy English Bible: https://www.easyenglish.bible/bible/easy/

This blog is also available as a narrated video at https://youtu.be/CJTJ3XaL9Lw

Note
“Easy English" documents are often aimed at a grade level between 4th and 6th grade in the United States, which would typically correspond to ages 9 to 12. This level of writing aims to simplify vocabulary, sentence structure, and overall readability to make the content more accessible to a wider audience.

Experiential Learning – John Dewey and Christian Education

John Dewey (1859-1952) is sometimes referred to as the father of American education. I think of him as the Einstein of teaching and learning processes.

At a time when education was characterized by rote memorization, a fixed curriculum, and teacher-centeredness, Dewey advocated experiential learning, problem-solving, critical thinking, and real-life learning experiences.


Quotes that are associated with him include these: "Education is not preparation for life but life itself," "We do not learn from experience... we learn from reflecting on experience," and "A problem well put is half solved."

This blog will survey key principles of John Dewey, share insights regarding Dewey’s contributions to Christian education, and summarize one of his books (How We Think).

Dewey’s Key Principles and How They Relate to Christian Education

Dewey’s contributions are many. Following are five of his key concepts (collaboration, experience, problem-solving, reflection, and student-centeredness), a brief explanation of each, and their application to Christian education.

Collaboration
Dewey viewed learning as a social process. He believed that students learn best by interacting with others through methods such as discussion, group projects, and peer teaching. Social learning allows students to share ideas and learn from one another.

Christians are created to be in community with one another. The church is described in the Bible as a “body” with members functioning in harmony with one another according to their unique gifts and abilities. Thinking about collaboration reminds me of 1 Corinthians 12:27: “You are the body of Christ. Each of you is a part of it.”

Experience
Learning is through continuous real-life, hands-on experiences and is enhanced by reflecting on, interpreting, and applying these experiences. Guided learning experiences allow students to make connections between new knowledge and what they already know. Field trips, service projects, internships, simulations, and other hands-on activities are examples of experiential learning.

From a Christian education perspective, learning should involve more than memorizing Bible verses or theological concepts. Christian education ought to involve participation in spiritual practices and activities that relate to the faith-life experiences of students. James 1:22 refers to being experientially involved with Scripture: “Be doers of the word and not hearers only.”

Problem-solving
Learning is most effective when students are mentally active. This level of activity is likely to occur when participants are given problems to solve. Problem-solving typically requires critical and creative thinking, as well as reaching constructive conclusions. Teaching methods include case studies, learning games, collaborative projects, flipped classrooms, and role-playing.

Christian educators can create real-life scenarios that involve making value judgments, resolving moral dilemmas, and responding to ethical situations. When I think about problem-solving, Micah 6:8 comes to mind: “Act justly and love mercy and walk humbly with your God.”

Reflection
Participants learn not just by the accumulation of information, but by interpreting facts and experiences in relation to their lives. Reflection allows learners to grow through experiences by identifying and analyzing facts and considering the implications of these for their lives. Educational methods that encourage reflection include open-ended questions, dialogue, journaling, group discussion, and case study debriefing activities.

Christian educators can encourage reflective thinking by encouraging students to evaluate themselves and the world through the light of Scripture. This could include practicing spiritual disciplines, having times for biblical meditation, and examining themselves in relation to the world. In Philippians 4:4-9, Paul writes, “Think about these things.”

Student-centeredness
Dewey advocated a student-centered approach to education. By this, he meant that the curriculum and teaching methods should consider the interests, needs, and abilities of students. Education should be relevant to students' lives, and teachers should facilitate learning experiences rather than just imparting knowledge. Students should be active participants in their own learning. This may be demonstrated through shared planning, flexible seating, respecting learner feedback, providing students with choices, and creating a cooperative learning environment.

Christian teachers look for ways to love, respect, and serve their students. The life and teachings of Jesus provide many examples of focusing outside of ourselves. These include the Parable of the Good Samaritan, washing the feet of the disciples, and the Sermon on the Mount. A specific passage about serving others is in Matthew 20:26-28: “…whoever wants to become great among you must be your servant, and whoever wants to be first must be your slave.”

An Example of Dewey’s Writing: Book Summary: How We Think

Thought processes are basic to all
aspects of education. To provide an example of Dewey’s understanding of the learning process, we will look at a summary of the process of inquiry. There are five steps according to Dewey: perception of a problem, analysis of the problem, hypothesis formation, testing of hypotheses, and drawing conclusions.

1. Perception of a problem: The first step is to recognize that there is a problem to be solved. This may be triggered by a conflict, a discrepancy, or a difficulty.
2. Analysis of the problem: The next step is to gather information and data about the problem. This may involve observation, research, or interviews.
3. Hypothesis formation: Once the problem has been analyzed, the next step is to generate possible solutions. These solutions are called hypotheses.
4. Testing of hypotheses: The next step is to test the hypotheses to see if they are valid. This may involve experimentation, observation, or further research.
5. Drawing conclusions: The final step is to draw conclusions about the problem. This may involve accepting or rejecting the hypotheses, or modifying them.

Dewey believed that thinking is a skill that can be learned and that it is essential for success in learning and in life. In the book, he provides a number of exercises and activities that can be used to help students develop their thinking skills.

This blog has summarized many of John Dewey's significant contributions to education, particularly five key principles: collaboration, experience, problem-solving, reflection, and student-centeredness. Many of these principles align with Christian education values, emphasizing the importance of community, hands-on learning, problem-solving, reflective thinking, and adapting education to students' interests and needs. The presentation also provided a summary of Dewey's book How We Think, outlining the five steps of the inquiry process that he believed were fundamental to effective learning and problem-solving. Overall, Dewey's ideas continue to have a profound impact on education, encouraging a student-centered approach that promotes active, engaged, and meaningful learning experiences.

Resources

Some of John Dewey’s most notable books include the following.
The School and Society (1899) https://amzn.to/3r5RUN6
How We Think (1910) https://amzn.to/3EGwOaZ
Democracy and Education (1916) https://amzn.to/3PEGwA3
Art as Experience (1934) https://amzn.to/44VQNgL
Experience and Education (1938) https://amzn.to/3Pn0fno

End Notes

Criticisms of Dewey’s Approach
John Dewey's philosophy has received criticism from various perspectives, including from Christian educators and theologians. Some common criticisms are: 1) Dewey wrote from a secular and relativistic point of view, 2) he did not acknowledge the spiritual or moral areas of life, 3) he did not respect approaches that are grounded in absolute truth or unchangeable doctrines, and 4) his writing lacked a moral framework. With sensitivity to the value of these criticisms, the greater amount of literature from Christian educators suggests that many of Dewey’s ideas should be integrated into Christian education, especially in areas such as experiential learning and reflective thinking.

Supplementary online resources that may have been consulted include ChatGPT, Google Search, Google Bard, Bing, and Wikipedia

YouTube version of this blog: https://youtu.be/RyVQaO3bJ88

Church and School Education (CASE) Resources is a participant in the Amazon Services LLC Associates Program, affiliate advertising designed to provide a means for sites to earn fees by linking to Amazon.com.